I. Preliminary
The concept of gender is one of the instruments of analysis used for the study of women. According to the concept of gender, women and men is not a biological phenomenon, but is the result of cultural construction that is subject to change and value free. The idea that nature is destiny, and that the women because of the power prokreatifnya responsible for the housekeeping, parenting and guardian who is a sex naturally weak, affecting the world of science and views of people in everyday life. Such a perspective, according to Simone de Beauvoir (1947) is a biological reality that is culturally construed. The big difference in the working area, the public and domestic, according to radical feminists, further strengthening male dominance over women, who once imprisoned and excluded women from public or social role. According Fakih (1997:85) the creation of this dichotomy (public & domestic) are characteristic and how the patriarchal system. For feminists, the root causes of gender inequality derived from inheriting real patriarchal ideology that glorifies men.
Patriarchy, as a very coherent system is always regarded as one of the causes of the emergence pensubordinasian and discrimination against women. Gayle Rubin (1975) in Wieringa, (1999) put forward what he called the sex gender system, sex is natural then to gender is cultural.II. Understanding Ideology of PatriarchyPatriarchy is a system of authority based on male power socialized through social institutions, political, and economic. The family institution is seen as the institutional authority of the "Father", where the division of labor on the terms of gender and oppression against women are socialized and produced. Family laden with charges of ideological and class interests of the ruling, namely men (Ollenburger, 1996:39-40).Of the few studies conducted so far, shows the patriarchal ideology thrives in the family institution that adheres to patrilineal systems, where men in this system becomes an important and dominant figure in the family in various fields, both power and in access to economic assets, such as patrilineal inheritance system. kibatnya women's lives become so dependent on men. In patrilineal-patriarchal families, men also control the power of women working formally and informally. Of the struggle of women will provide economic and social consequences on them. Marxist feminists strongly condemn the family as an economic unit, not as an emotional unit (Tong, 1989:62). Economic dependence is part of the systems that maintain a marriage, family and pengibuan (mothering), as well as oppress and marginalize women's social functions. The concept of "mother" is not only used for things that are natural, such as pregnancy, childbirth and breastfeeding, but also a cultural construction built and legalized through various social institutions that exist in different ways as well. Let's take an example, for instance, marriage in China and India are researched by Ursula Sharma (1980), shows that the patrilineal family system with a pattern-patrilokal domestic-public division of labor causes the oppressed women of their rights. Marriage tradition known as the dowry system (dowry), is essentially a covert economic transactions. Women as construction labor "cheap" which is economically very weak, traded between the two senior relatives. With patrilokal mating systems, female labor becomes an asset that is very important in her husband's relatives, and therefore should be compensated with a dowry by her future husband, as owners of capital. The consequence is that women are powerless and increasingly constrained by the power of male dominance as the party that has been "bought" her in marriage transactions. Although women carry a legacy as an engagement gift ketengah relatives of her husband, but it is considered an additional asset attached to the female self. Including the economic values produced with additional work in agriculture and trade (Hirschon, 1984:51-63). In Indonesia, a case like this can be found in almost all ethnic groups who embraced patrilineal-patriarchal system. The Minangkabau, though adopts a matrilineal-matrilocal (Kato, 1982 and Naim, 1985) in the real life practice is tantamount to the concept of patrilineal-patriarchal. Basically, where a society, dowry system still practiced in the tradition of marriage, then the concept of a patriarchal ideology would flourish.
III. Women in Cultural Perspective.Cultural understanding about women's issues, status and role in social life, highly varied in accordance with the development of the situation and time. Also depending on how these insights relate to the position of women in various communities. Anthropologists, though, which is investigating the position of women in the development of society are unconsciously involved in the debate concerning the origins and universality of the marginalization of women. By doing so the study of hierarchical relationship between men and women to be importantMen and women are naturally, biologically and genetically different, is a reality, as the nature of God which can not be changed. But who then gave birth to the debate is when these natural differences and then create a diverse understanding of each person and community groups. Further understanding of these differences are known to the concept of gender, ie some properties attached to the men and women who are socially and culturally constructed (Fakih, 1997:8) For example the stereotype of women known as the gentle, maternal, emotional or more patient. While men are considered strong, rational, powerful, and so forth. Such stereotypes can be interchangeable and may be different in each community, depending on the culture and value systems are built.Aristotle, quoted in (Bhasin, 1996:30), a Greek philosopher, was also giving a certain understanding of the biological differences between men and women. He put forward a theory that human males are active and women passive. For Aristotle, women are men who do not complete, people who do not have souls. He argues that the biological inferiority of women resulted in them also inferior in many respects. Not having the ability to use ratios, and therefore the impact on poor women in making decisions. Including Sigmund Freud (in Bhasin, 1996:30) claims that the biological aspects of women affects the psychological aspect, which in turn affects the ability and social role. Freudian doctrine is widespread, which is then followed by many, and to guide and reference for educators, social workers and politiciansIn principle, the existence of gender differences which in turn gave birth gender roles based on biological differences between men and women, in fact not be a problem and therefore do not matter. By nature of women with reproductive organs could be pregnancy, childbirth and breastfeeding, and then have the gender roles as nurses, caregivers and educators are natural. The problem is, it turns out the gender roles of women are valued and appreciated far lower than the male gender role. Gender role turned out to bear injustice, discrimination and oppression against women. This is basically a socio-cultural construction built by a particular community.Oppression of women, anthropologically, is viewed by Sherry Ortner (in Moore, 1998:30) is caused by a system of values that are culturally specific meanings. Ortner put the backwardness of women at the level of ideology and cultural symbols. Oppression of women in the universal culture, Ortner said, is manivestasi of understanding between culture and nature which is then compared with the position of men and women in social roles. In general, culture provides the distinction between human society and nature. Culture seeks to control and master nature that further exploited for various purposes. Therefore culture is well positioned in the superior and inferior nature.Culture was created to acquire, manage and control the nature to maintain the continuity of community life. In relation to men and women, then women have been associated with nature, and men associated with the culture. Therefore is a natural thing when women are in a position that is controlled and dominated.Another approach that can be used to understand the oppression of women is the analysis of Karl Marx (in Heilbroner, 1991:34) about the power class. Marx saw that the political economy of capitalism as the culprit of the destruction and oppression of most citizens of society. Capitalism created the class, in the sense that the class has a capital-rich class and poor class, employers and workers. To explain the position of women with Marx's analysis of class, indeed women can not be categorized as one class only. That means he comes from a class of workers (proletariat) alone or a group borjouis only. But women who work in the domestic sector can dikatan as a class. They actually work, have more or less the same job responsibilities with work in other fields. But again, their work is undervalued or not valued at all. Then be controlled by women as a class because they do not generate economic values.Then Friedrich Engels (1972:103), a German philosopher, explain how changes in material conditions affect family relationships, relationships of men and women. He explained that initially the men and women do not recognize the marriage bond. They are equally free to decide whom they want to have sex. Or it can be said of all married to all, so they often have multiple sexual partners. Up to a condition where the population fewer women than men, and therefore many men who do not want to release the daughter. From then formed the tradition of marriage with a partner remains.When men have to choose a partner, then he should move into the family environment of women (matrilocal), because women are considered assets that have access to economic resources. In this condition, according to Engels, the system prevailing in the society is matrilineal system with pattern matriarkat life with economic and political power held by women. Women are on the ruling class and men as a group are controlled.The prey animals dominate and become an important economic resource, then there was a shift of power. Division of labor formed. Women getting dragged and trapped in domestic work and no longer considered important, because men now have greater value than in women. Ravin other than to eat, also can be exchanged with other goods. Thus the production of men increasingly appreciated. The man became the central figure and often become decision makers, until the man finally end the matrilineal line and replace it with a patriarchal patrilineal line, because the desire to inherit and control property. Engels said at the time that's happened the defeat of women's history. Two approaches are used to seeing the understanding that oppression of women in top positions seem to have a significant relationship.Biological differences between men and women bring an understanding of the roles, tasks and social functions of men and women. Departing from this was born the notion that a proper hunt and earn a living were male. Along with the development community, working difference between the domestic sphere and the public increasingly sharpened that led to the formation of labor specialization. As a result, men are increasingly exist in a social world, business, industry and also in family life. So he can express himself in these four areas. While women increasingly confined within the family golden cage.Because of the economic surplus generated by men who made the more powerful men, women increasingly marginalized, subordinated in the social life because it is very dependent on men. Further development is the changing pattern of monogamous families who matriarkat be patriarchal, where women's household work into a personal servant. Women serve men in the household who was ousted from all participation in the production and social. Powerlessness of women to male dominance mengkaunter compensated by building a specific jargon as an entertainer himself. Take an example, women's jargon is a noble creature, female as a pillar of the state, under the heel heaven mother, educate, nurture and care for children, including care of the husband is noble work for women, and so forth.IV. Patriarchy: An Ideological HegemonyIn the history of the development of society matrilineal system changes with the pattern of power matriarkat to a patriarchal patrilineal system, does not just happen. However, on the contrary contain certain interests, including interests of the community of men to control and master the economic assets that result. These interests further institutionalized in the form of social systems or cultures that gave power to men. This is then known as the ideology of patriarchy.In modern society, the ideology of patriarchy termanivestasi and increasingly confirmed by the capitalist system. Modern economic systems according to Marx (in Ritzer, 1996:71), is a contradiction between the exploited proletariat and the bourgeoisie (capitalists). Capitalism is seen as an exchange system, described as a community market where everything, including labor force, has a price. All transactions are fundamentally an exchange transaction. It is an exchange transaction for exploitation of the proletariat (workers). For example, worker-employer relationship can be seen as an exchange relationship between power with money. Employers have the power to force workers to work hard with wages as low as possible. In this position of women is the easiest workers to be exploited by biological reasons, reproduction and others. In addition there is also the assumption that women's work is not the fulfillment of basic tasks, but in addition to the family economy, because its main task at home.The question that then arises is, why women would easily be exploited? Why there are many, although now popping up various movements of protest and resistance against the system that marginalizes the role of women, in fact there are still many women who would accept even tends to maintain a system that obviously oppress them?Antonio Gramschi (in Patria, 1999:119) explains, that the supremacy of a social class obtained in two ways: through domination or coercion (coercion), and through intellectual and moral leadership. Departing from this premise, marginalization of women can be explained. First, when the division of labor increasingly sharpened between the public and domestic, the more male dominated and controlled economic assets and more women trapped in domestic life. Finally, more women are economically dependent on men. The man became the leader of the family, which is hidden behind an interest to control and master the economic assets that they are fighting. The pattern of family leadership hereinafter termanivestasi in social life, where men are always dominant in many aspects of life, politics, culture and law. At this point the dominant patriarchal ideology and oppressive, thus was born a political product, value system and legal system in favor of the interests of men as heads of households, while women as a housekeeper, is an example. This system obviously forcing women to be servants of men. Second, the dominance of men in the public world, then gave birth to the products of cultural, legal and institutionalized politics through social institutions, which eventually form the consciousness of all women to comply. For this condition Marx (in Schmitt, 1987:14) commented that the general situation of the material determines the processes of social, political and intellectual. This means that the existence, women's social position determines the awareness of social role. Women willingly accept the position subordinasinya even tends to forget. Oppression is not considered a problem. That way, the oppression is considered not to oppression, even considered as part of nature. This condition by Gramsci called hegemony.Described by Gramsci's hegemony (in Patria, 1999:119) as a condition of supremacy gained through intellectual and moral leadership. According to Gramsci, hegemony is a chain of victories gained through consensus mechanism that fosters awareness through existing institutions in society. The ideology of patriarchy is a system that mengejewantah through social institutions, political and economic. System built for the benefit of men, and by kerenanya is the basis for the oppression of women.As a small community, the family is seen as the most patriarchal institution. In a hierarchical system met the family institution, where men are positioned higher and power, while women are more low and to the master. Family is an important institution to educate and transform patriarchal values. In keluargalah individuals get lesson on the hierarchy, subordination and discrimination, where boys learn force and power, women learn to obey the contrary, learning is not treated equal and as human beings learn to socialize themselves marginalized. Imprisonment in a circle instead of household activity is used as an instrument to measure happiness by women.In the course of its long history, patriarchal ideology hegemonisasi was erhasil build awareness of ethical position of women in social roles. In Indonesia for example, various research results indicate a tendency that there is no correlation between happiness with the participation of wives helped their husbands in household work, especially on Java family. Even in the family tends Minahasa negative correlation, where the higher the participation rate of husbands in household work, the lower the level of happiness wife. Clifford Geertz and Koentjaraningrat (in Megawangi, 1999:41) found that the husband's family of Java is expected to handle the affairs outside the household. Dedicated wife of the husband for the Java community is seen as something sacred. Even regarded as happiness when his wife can devote herself and her life to her husband. Devotion wife regarded as a source of happiness in marriage.This reality is in fact morally shows that men dominate and control women. For Foreman, the woman in this condition in the position of alienation, because the whole activity is simply the completeness of his life for others. Before married women more governed by her parents and when married to her husband handed over his parents. Women then become the property of their husbands, take care of husband, household, and when she became a mother, she becomes his servant. Women become alienated, because his life continues to cater to the interests of others, become part of someone else, so he loses his true identity (Foreman, 1999:65).IV. Patriarchy and Marriage TransactionsFrom various studies regarding the position of women in social life embuktikan that distinction on the basis of biological differences and cultural stereotype of feminine-masculine, not only causes excessive burden for women, but also make women more economically dependent. This economic dependence in turn gave birth to various acts of injustice, pensubordinasian, discrimination and oppression on women.Elizabeth Croll (in Moore, 1998:121) in his study in China, found the three sectors of rural economy: (a) collective wage labor, (b) Additional activities of certain private and (c) domestic work, additional activities of certain private and domestic work which includes setting up and maintaining the household. Three sectors of the economy in fact has implications for the mating strategies and the status of women. The young woman who is married, according to Croll, not only working on areas of collective work, but also working on additional private sector and domestic work. That is, the position of women become paramount. For the exchange of women through the institution of marriage is an interest as a means of recruitment. On the other hand, the position of women is clearly not benefited. Women are clearly used and exploited. In China, as the findings of Croll, which applies patrilineal patrilocal kinship system, where the lineage is based on male (father) and after a married woman living in the family environment of men (husbands). Women, as the law, not just housekeeping role, but he is also an asset of the agricultural labor for her husband's family. Hence the importance of women's value, then as compensation for the loss of a daughter, the family asked for women's "compensation" in the form of wedding gift. This is then known as the dowry system (dowry). The tradition of marriage with this system is clearly a manifestation of the ideology of patriarchy, where men are positioned higher than women, women must be controlled by men and women are positioned as belonging to men. Patrilineal system is also related to inheritance law, which inherited the property of the father to the boys, not in women. When a daughter married, she did not bring anything into the environment as an economic asset husband's family. That way, women were seen as workers, as "workers" because households do not have the capital, by a male family.When women began entering the work area of public and social activities as wage labor, are on one side can enhance the "resale value," but did not necessarily raise the position and status of women. Still, women are at a lost, oppressed and their rights are not respected his work, with other reasons. Earnings of women, as a wage worker for example, is still seen by her husband and family as compensation for the cost of getting himself, and women's earnings will be included in the fund family (Moore, 1998: 123). Assessment against women by men like these, presumably based on the view that women are regarded as property because it had "bought" from his family. For that the work of women is considered equivalent to the rice fields or other productive property. That is, this system makes women will never be an independent individual and appreciated, because the right to income was not recognized as his own.Dowry (dowry) was originally intended as a woman's right to inherit a specific part of the property patrimoni, and social function is to provide economic security, status and greater independence for women, especially after he married. But from the research it was apparent that the social functions of inheritance is experiencing a shift, where women can no longer dominate and control his property. Apparently, Urshula Sharma (in Moore, 1998:125-126) found, that the dowry was handed over to the parents of the man (husband), and then distributed to other relatives. Usually most of dowry is also allocated to the bridegroom and women as partners, and not left to the woman as a person. That is, dowry no longer guarantee and strengthen the position of women. Although the Indian community, who studiedSharma (1980:48-50) considers that the dowry strengthen the position of women in the household, due to make his family respectable dowry, but the truth, dowry memberikanya no power or autonomy within the household. Dowry cases were found by Sharma similar to the case of Dayak Tomon (Tamuan) Central Kalimantan that was discovered by Widen (2003). Among Dayak Tomon still known the existence of social strata in terms of Rajo (king), Suko (nobility), and Hulun (the commoners). Social strata thus less visible in their social lives everyday, except in a marriage ceremony. Rajo his descendants dowry is 8-10 islands (urn); to offspring Suko island 6-8, while for the descendants of Hulun range of 2-5 islands. Even more interesting is when a man from a lower descendant of the royal woo women then men have to pay a fine that is handed 8-10 islands to raise their social strata. Conversely, when a man proposes marriage royal descendant women from the lower, then the man must pay fines with 8-10 pieces of the island to raise the strata of women who he nut. All islands (jar) is transferred to the female parent. Therefore, among the Dayak Tomon, high or low their social status in society is determined by the number of islands (jar) that they have. Among Dayak of Central Kalimantan Ngaju dowry was paid in the form of some fruits garantung (gong). Both garantung and heritage of the island is invaluable among the Dayak tribe. Therefore these objects is a tool to "buy" women from their parents.Of the three models of dowry, dowry is understood that in fact can be interpreted as: first, the dowry as a marriage transaction, in which the female parent requested "damages" against the loss of their daughters as economic assets of the family. Second, the dowry as the inheritance of family property that was taken during the marriage, which has a social function as security, economic independence for women. Although the practical level was not raised the status of women.What is stated above, dowry system regardless of its form, clearlyAt least, there are three fundamental things that cause the position of women like this. First, economic factors, which influence the decision-making. The existence of gender-based division of labor between the public and domestic, to bring women to the position dependent on men economically, and this obviously weakens the bargaining power in decision making. This then manifests in the form of patriarchal system. Second, the dowry system on the one hand raises the image of marriage transactions, where women are "bought", the "price" adjusted to the qualifications held, as a productive economic assets. This entailed the lack of respect for women as a personal achievement. His work is considered as family income equal to the results of other property, like land, and paddy-fields. Women in this position will never find his true identity and gain economic independence and social. Third, the dowry system, culturally have made the men feel superior and judge that women have more negative stereotypes that labeled less worthy to be in the public space and obtain a variety of occasions such as man.V. Ideology of Patriarchy In Central Kalimantan Dayak CommunityTheoretically, in Indonesia, the basic affinity, can be divided into three, namely: (a) along the lines Mr consanguinity (patrilineal), for example on the Dayak, Nias and Sumba, (b) consanguinity according to the maternal line (matrilineal), for example Minangkabau family, (c) consanguinity according to the mother and father lines (parental / bilateral), as in the Javanese, Sundanese, Bali, and Kalimantan. Dayak tribe family know your system when parental / bilateral, that lineage is taken either from the mother or the father. Place of residence after marriage in general is matrilocal (sumai follow the wife). In domestic life, since long time ago, more Dayak women doing work in the domestic sphere, while men dominate public space. For example, a man responsible for the problem of security and family safety, family economic sufficiency, security, political, and social activities. More women are involved only in religious rituals. In political life and governance, Dayak women are still far behind (Widen, 2003). In terms of mentality, less agile than the Dayak women other women outside of Java such as women Dayak, Batak, Manado, Banjar, Sundanese, and others. Dayak women may be said to be less agile, slow, passive, less creative, less authoritative, less confident and less independent. I saw a woman Dayak mentality like this little number due to the dowry system (my head) as the various cases above. In the Dayak my head (dowry) varies. Formerly my head could be gold, jars, gongs, and other valuable objects. But today there is pergeseren value and shape my head, namely in the form of a parcel of land. This land can be a piece of land is still vacant, it could be in the form of rattan gardens, orchards, or rubber plantations. The presence of a new man in the family women have a positive value because it is the additional employment of women in the family. Therefore, the presence of a man giving an important symbol in Dayak families, whether he was present as the birth of a daughter or son. Since kecilpun boys and girls are taught to work and do the work according to their gender and the appropriate space (domestic and public) experienced by mothers and their father. Traditional leaders, community leaders, and that could be a guardian asbah in the family (core and relatives), and that a witness in the marriage were male. Highest social status of women in the Dayak community is just as wadian / Basir (purchase) either in ritual healing the sick and the rituals of death.Communal life of the Dayak people, both in households and in the life of Customary Law, government and politics are still dominated by men, namely the dominance of patriarchy. Patriarchal domination according to Widen (2003) was shaped by cultural values and past experiences which then tersosialiasi in family and community life. As a result, even until today, patriarchal culture, is generally regarded as "culture" that can not be changed, and some communities in Indonesia, including the Dayak consider it as part of "nature" of women.VII. Cover
Biological differences between men and women into the emergence of basic understanding of the different roles and areas of work between men and women. The man in the working area of public and women in the domestic sphere. In this position, biological reality is culturally interpreted, which in turn gave birth to the normative rules that are constructed and disseminated in social relations, which are appropriate and inappropriate is done by men or women. The implication of women getting stuck in the routine of household work and socially subordinate. Consequently, men become dominant and control the lives of women. Male dominance in the public domain subsequent delivery of cultural products are institutionalized through social institutions, so start happening hegemonisasi patriarchy in social life, which then raises the awareness of women to accept their gender inequality as "natural." Could women out of the hegemony of patriarchy as described above?. Even if possible, still require a long struggle, namely through the collective struggle of women and the struggle it certainly must have the courage to sacrifice some normative and theological rule is ingrained in the female self. Two major capital must be owned by women to get to that direction, namely that rational consciousness is built through education and their active participation in the political world. Advanced formal education (S1, S2 and S3) and infromal will open their insight and knowledge and that they can think critically, rational, creative, confident and more independent. Then women's participation in the political world will also open horizons and increase their knowledge of political life. Activities like this will train them to be more independent, more creative, critical thinking, networking / network with various women's organizations, governments and other political organizations. Political activity also trains women to dare to appear in public and together with other women fighting for gender justice in all aspects of life in society. Thus the solution will still be crippled, if good men as husbands, fathers, and leaders are not given insight into gender. It means the struggle to achieve justice and gender equality are the duties and obligations of men and women so that they had the same insight about the universal concept of gender. Behind it all there are three serious challenges ahead to break down the walls of patriarchy, namely Politics, Culture and Religion.
III. Women in Cultural Perspective.Cultural understanding about women's issues, status and role in social life, highly varied in accordance with the development of the situation and time. Also depending on how these insights relate to the position of women in various communities. Anthropologists, though, which is investigating the position of women in the development of society are unconsciously involved in the debate concerning the origins and universality of the marginalization of women. By doing so the study of hierarchical relationship between men and women to be importantMen and women are naturally, biologically and genetically different, is a reality, as the nature of God which can not be changed. But who then gave birth to the debate is when these natural differences and then create a diverse understanding of each person and community groups. Further understanding of these differences are known to the concept of gender, ie some properties attached to the men and women who are socially and culturally constructed (Fakih, 1997:8) For example the stereotype of women known as the gentle, maternal, emotional or more patient. While men are considered strong, rational, powerful, and so forth. Such stereotypes can be interchangeable and may be different in each community, depending on the culture and value systems are built.Aristotle, quoted in (Bhasin, 1996:30), a Greek philosopher, was also giving a certain understanding of the biological differences between men and women. He put forward a theory that human males are active and women passive. For Aristotle, women are men who do not complete, people who do not have souls. He argues that the biological inferiority of women resulted in them also inferior in many respects. Not having the ability to use ratios, and therefore the impact on poor women in making decisions. Including Sigmund Freud (in Bhasin, 1996:30) claims that the biological aspects of women affects the psychological aspect, which in turn affects the ability and social role. Freudian doctrine is widespread, which is then followed by many, and to guide and reference for educators, social workers and politiciansIn principle, the existence of gender differences which in turn gave birth gender roles based on biological differences between men and women, in fact not be a problem and therefore do not matter. By nature of women with reproductive organs could be pregnancy, childbirth and breastfeeding, and then have the gender roles as nurses, caregivers and educators are natural. The problem is, it turns out the gender roles of women are valued and appreciated far lower than the male gender role. Gender role turned out to bear injustice, discrimination and oppression against women. This is basically a socio-cultural construction built by a particular community.Oppression of women, anthropologically, is viewed by Sherry Ortner (in Moore, 1998:30) is caused by a system of values that are culturally specific meanings. Ortner put the backwardness of women at the level of ideology and cultural symbols. Oppression of women in the universal culture, Ortner said, is manivestasi of understanding between culture and nature which is then compared with the position of men and women in social roles. In general, culture provides the distinction between human society and nature. Culture seeks to control and master nature that further exploited for various purposes. Therefore culture is well positioned in the superior and inferior nature.Culture was created to acquire, manage and control the nature to maintain the continuity of community life. In relation to men and women, then women have been associated with nature, and men associated with the culture. Therefore is a natural thing when women are in a position that is controlled and dominated.Another approach that can be used to understand the oppression of women is the analysis of Karl Marx (in Heilbroner, 1991:34) about the power class. Marx saw that the political economy of capitalism as the culprit of the destruction and oppression of most citizens of society. Capitalism created the class, in the sense that the class has a capital-rich class and poor class, employers and workers. To explain the position of women with Marx's analysis of class, indeed women can not be categorized as one class only. That means he comes from a class of workers (proletariat) alone or a group borjouis only. But women who work in the domestic sector can dikatan as a class. They actually work, have more or less the same job responsibilities with work in other fields. But again, their work is undervalued or not valued at all. Then be controlled by women as a class because they do not generate economic values.Then Friedrich Engels (1972:103), a German philosopher, explain how changes in material conditions affect family relationships, relationships of men and women. He explained that initially the men and women do not recognize the marriage bond. They are equally free to decide whom they want to have sex. Or it can be said of all married to all, so they often have multiple sexual partners. Up to a condition where the population fewer women than men, and therefore many men who do not want to release the daughter. From then formed the tradition of marriage with a partner remains.When men have to choose a partner, then he should move into the family environment of women (matrilocal), because women are considered assets that have access to economic resources. In this condition, according to Engels, the system prevailing in the society is matrilineal system with pattern matriarkat life with economic and political power held by women. Women are on the ruling class and men as a group are controlled.The prey animals dominate and become an important economic resource, then there was a shift of power. Division of labor formed. Women getting dragged and trapped in domestic work and no longer considered important, because men now have greater value than in women. Ravin other than to eat, also can be exchanged with other goods. Thus the production of men increasingly appreciated. The man became the central figure and often become decision makers, until the man finally end the matrilineal line and replace it with a patriarchal patrilineal line, because the desire to inherit and control property. Engels said at the time that's happened the defeat of women's history. Two approaches are used to seeing the understanding that oppression of women in top positions seem to have a significant relationship.Biological differences between men and women bring an understanding of the roles, tasks and social functions of men and women. Departing from this was born the notion that a proper hunt and earn a living were male. Along with the development community, working difference between the domestic sphere and the public increasingly sharpened that led to the formation of labor specialization. As a result, men are increasingly exist in a social world, business, industry and also in family life. So he can express himself in these four areas. While women increasingly confined within the family golden cage.Because of the economic surplus generated by men who made the more powerful men, women increasingly marginalized, subordinated in the social life because it is very dependent on men. Further development is the changing pattern of monogamous families who matriarkat be patriarchal, where women's household work into a personal servant. Women serve men in the household who was ousted from all participation in the production and social. Powerlessness of women to male dominance mengkaunter compensated by building a specific jargon as an entertainer himself. Take an example, women's jargon is a noble creature, female as a pillar of the state, under the heel heaven mother, educate, nurture and care for children, including care of the husband is noble work for women, and so forth.IV. Patriarchy: An Ideological HegemonyIn the history of the development of society matrilineal system changes with the pattern of power matriarkat to a patriarchal patrilineal system, does not just happen. However, on the contrary contain certain interests, including interests of the community of men to control and master the economic assets that result. These interests further institutionalized in the form of social systems or cultures that gave power to men. This is then known as the ideology of patriarchy.In modern society, the ideology of patriarchy termanivestasi and increasingly confirmed by the capitalist system. Modern economic systems according to Marx (in Ritzer, 1996:71), is a contradiction between the exploited proletariat and the bourgeoisie (capitalists). Capitalism is seen as an exchange system, described as a community market where everything, including labor force, has a price. All transactions are fundamentally an exchange transaction. It is an exchange transaction for exploitation of the proletariat (workers). For example, worker-employer relationship can be seen as an exchange relationship between power with money. Employers have the power to force workers to work hard with wages as low as possible. In this position of women is the easiest workers to be exploited by biological reasons, reproduction and others. In addition there is also the assumption that women's work is not the fulfillment of basic tasks, but in addition to the family economy, because its main task at home.The question that then arises is, why women would easily be exploited? Why there are many, although now popping up various movements of protest and resistance against the system that marginalizes the role of women, in fact there are still many women who would accept even tends to maintain a system that obviously oppress them?Antonio Gramschi (in Patria, 1999:119) explains, that the supremacy of a social class obtained in two ways: through domination or coercion (coercion), and through intellectual and moral leadership. Departing from this premise, marginalization of women can be explained. First, when the division of labor increasingly sharpened between the public and domestic, the more male dominated and controlled economic assets and more women trapped in domestic life. Finally, more women are economically dependent on men. The man became the leader of the family, which is hidden behind an interest to control and master the economic assets that they are fighting. The pattern of family leadership hereinafter termanivestasi in social life, where men are always dominant in many aspects of life, politics, culture and law. At this point the dominant patriarchal ideology and oppressive, thus was born a political product, value system and legal system in favor of the interests of men as heads of households, while women as a housekeeper, is an example. This system obviously forcing women to be servants of men. Second, the dominance of men in the public world, then gave birth to the products of cultural, legal and institutionalized politics through social institutions, which eventually form the consciousness of all women to comply. For this condition Marx (in Schmitt, 1987:14) commented that the general situation of the material determines the processes of social, political and intellectual. This means that the existence, women's social position determines the awareness of social role. Women willingly accept the position subordinasinya even tends to forget. Oppression is not considered a problem. That way, the oppression is considered not to oppression, even considered as part of nature. This condition by Gramsci called hegemony.Described by Gramsci's hegemony (in Patria, 1999:119) as a condition of supremacy gained through intellectual and moral leadership. According to Gramsci, hegemony is a chain of victories gained through consensus mechanism that fosters awareness through existing institutions in society. The ideology of patriarchy is a system that mengejewantah through social institutions, political and economic. System built for the benefit of men, and by kerenanya is the basis for the oppression of women.As a small community, the family is seen as the most patriarchal institution. In a hierarchical system met the family institution, where men are positioned higher and power, while women are more low and to the master. Family is an important institution to educate and transform patriarchal values. In keluargalah individuals get lesson on the hierarchy, subordination and discrimination, where boys learn force and power, women learn to obey the contrary, learning is not treated equal and as human beings learn to socialize themselves marginalized. Imprisonment in a circle instead of household activity is used as an instrument to measure happiness by women.In the course of its long history, patriarchal ideology hegemonisasi was erhasil build awareness of ethical position of women in social roles. In Indonesia for example, various research results indicate a tendency that there is no correlation between happiness with the participation of wives helped their husbands in household work, especially on Java family. Even in the family tends Minahasa negative correlation, where the higher the participation rate of husbands in household work, the lower the level of happiness wife. Clifford Geertz and Koentjaraningrat (in Megawangi, 1999:41) found that the husband's family of Java is expected to handle the affairs outside the household. Dedicated wife of the husband for the Java community is seen as something sacred. Even regarded as happiness when his wife can devote herself and her life to her husband. Devotion wife regarded as a source of happiness in marriage.This reality is in fact morally shows that men dominate and control women. For Foreman, the woman in this condition in the position of alienation, because the whole activity is simply the completeness of his life for others. Before married women more governed by her parents and when married to her husband handed over his parents. Women then become the property of their husbands, take care of husband, household, and when she became a mother, she becomes his servant. Women become alienated, because his life continues to cater to the interests of others, become part of someone else, so he loses his true identity (Foreman, 1999:65).IV. Patriarchy and Marriage TransactionsFrom various studies regarding the position of women in social life embuktikan that distinction on the basis of biological differences and cultural stereotype of feminine-masculine, not only causes excessive burden for women, but also make women more economically dependent. This economic dependence in turn gave birth to various acts of injustice, pensubordinasian, discrimination and oppression on women.Elizabeth Croll (in Moore, 1998:121) in his study in China, found the three sectors of rural economy: (a) collective wage labor, (b) Additional activities of certain private and (c) domestic work, additional activities of certain private and domestic work which includes setting up and maintaining the household. Three sectors of the economy in fact has implications for the mating strategies and the status of women. The young woman who is married, according to Croll, not only working on areas of collective work, but also working on additional private sector and domestic work. That is, the position of women become paramount. For the exchange of women through the institution of marriage is an interest as a means of recruitment. On the other hand, the position of women is clearly not benefited. Women are clearly used and exploited. In China, as the findings of Croll, which applies patrilineal patrilocal kinship system, where the lineage is based on male (father) and after a married woman living in the family environment of men (husbands). Women, as the law, not just housekeeping role, but he is also an asset of the agricultural labor for her husband's family. Hence the importance of women's value, then as compensation for the loss of a daughter, the family asked for women's "compensation" in the form of wedding gift. This is then known as the dowry system (dowry). The tradition of marriage with this system is clearly a manifestation of the ideology of patriarchy, where men are positioned higher than women, women must be controlled by men and women are positioned as belonging to men. Patrilineal system is also related to inheritance law, which inherited the property of the father to the boys, not in women. When a daughter married, she did not bring anything into the environment as an economic asset husband's family. That way, women were seen as workers, as "workers" because households do not have the capital, by a male family.When women began entering the work area of public and social activities as wage labor, are on one side can enhance the "resale value," but did not necessarily raise the position and status of women. Still, women are at a lost, oppressed and their rights are not respected his work, with other reasons. Earnings of women, as a wage worker for example, is still seen by her husband and family as compensation for the cost of getting himself, and women's earnings will be included in the fund family (Moore, 1998: 123). Assessment against women by men like these, presumably based on the view that women are regarded as property because it had "bought" from his family. For that the work of women is considered equivalent to the rice fields or other productive property. That is, this system makes women will never be an independent individual and appreciated, because the right to income was not recognized as his own.Dowry (dowry) was originally intended as a woman's right to inherit a specific part of the property patrimoni, and social function is to provide economic security, status and greater independence for women, especially after he married. But from the research it was apparent that the social functions of inheritance is experiencing a shift, where women can no longer dominate and control his property. Apparently, Urshula Sharma (in Moore, 1998:125-126) found, that the dowry was handed over to the parents of the man (husband), and then distributed to other relatives. Usually most of dowry is also allocated to the bridegroom and women as partners, and not left to the woman as a person. That is, dowry no longer guarantee and strengthen the position of women. Although the Indian community, who studiedSharma (1980:48-50) considers that the dowry strengthen the position of women in the household, due to make his family respectable dowry, but the truth, dowry memberikanya no power or autonomy within the household. Dowry cases were found by Sharma similar to the case of Dayak Tomon (Tamuan) Central Kalimantan that was discovered by Widen (2003). Among Dayak Tomon still known the existence of social strata in terms of Rajo (king), Suko (nobility), and Hulun (the commoners). Social strata thus less visible in their social lives everyday, except in a marriage ceremony. Rajo his descendants dowry is 8-10 islands (urn); to offspring Suko island 6-8, while for the descendants of Hulun range of 2-5 islands. Even more interesting is when a man from a lower descendant of the royal woo women then men have to pay a fine that is handed 8-10 islands to raise their social strata. Conversely, when a man proposes marriage royal descendant women from the lower, then the man must pay fines with 8-10 pieces of the island to raise the strata of women who he nut. All islands (jar) is transferred to the female parent. Therefore, among the Dayak Tomon, high or low their social status in society is determined by the number of islands (jar) that they have. Among Dayak of Central Kalimantan Ngaju dowry was paid in the form of some fruits garantung (gong). Both garantung and heritage of the island is invaluable among the Dayak tribe. Therefore these objects is a tool to "buy" women from their parents.Of the three models of dowry, dowry is understood that in fact can be interpreted as: first, the dowry as a marriage transaction, in which the female parent requested "damages" against the loss of their daughters as economic assets of the family. Second, the dowry as the inheritance of family property that was taken during the marriage, which has a social function as security, economic independence for women. Although the practical level was not raised the status of women.What is stated above, dowry system regardless of its form, clearlyAt least, there are three fundamental things that cause the position of women like this. First, economic factors, which influence the decision-making. The existence of gender-based division of labor between the public and domestic, to bring women to the position dependent on men economically, and this obviously weakens the bargaining power in decision making. This then manifests in the form of patriarchal system. Second, the dowry system on the one hand raises the image of marriage transactions, where women are "bought", the "price" adjusted to the qualifications held, as a productive economic assets. This entailed the lack of respect for women as a personal achievement. His work is considered as family income equal to the results of other property, like land, and paddy-fields. Women in this position will never find his true identity and gain economic independence and social. Third, the dowry system, culturally have made the men feel superior and judge that women have more negative stereotypes that labeled less worthy to be in the public space and obtain a variety of occasions such as man.V. Ideology of Patriarchy In Central Kalimantan Dayak CommunityTheoretically, in Indonesia, the basic affinity, can be divided into three, namely: (a) along the lines Mr consanguinity (patrilineal), for example on the Dayak, Nias and Sumba, (b) consanguinity according to the maternal line (matrilineal), for example Minangkabau family, (c) consanguinity according to the mother and father lines (parental / bilateral), as in the Javanese, Sundanese, Bali, and Kalimantan. Dayak tribe family know your system when parental / bilateral, that lineage is taken either from the mother or the father. Place of residence after marriage in general is matrilocal (sumai follow the wife). In domestic life, since long time ago, more Dayak women doing work in the domestic sphere, while men dominate public space. For example, a man responsible for the problem of security and family safety, family economic sufficiency, security, political, and social activities. More women are involved only in religious rituals. In political life and governance, Dayak women are still far behind (Widen, 2003). In terms of mentality, less agile than the Dayak women other women outside of Java such as women Dayak, Batak, Manado, Banjar, Sundanese, and others. Dayak women may be said to be less agile, slow, passive, less creative, less authoritative, less confident and less independent. I saw a woman Dayak mentality like this little number due to the dowry system (my head) as the various cases above. In the Dayak my head (dowry) varies. Formerly my head could be gold, jars, gongs, and other valuable objects. But today there is pergeseren value and shape my head, namely in the form of a parcel of land. This land can be a piece of land is still vacant, it could be in the form of rattan gardens, orchards, or rubber plantations. The presence of a new man in the family women have a positive value because it is the additional employment of women in the family. Therefore, the presence of a man giving an important symbol in Dayak families, whether he was present as the birth of a daughter or son. Since kecilpun boys and girls are taught to work and do the work according to their gender and the appropriate space (domestic and public) experienced by mothers and their father. Traditional leaders, community leaders, and that could be a guardian asbah in the family (core and relatives), and that a witness in the marriage were male. Highest social status of women in the Dayak community is just as wadian / Basir (purchase) either in ritual healing the sick and the rituals of death.Communal life of the Dayak people, both in households and in the life of Customary Law, government and politics are still dominated by men, namely the dominance of patriarchy. Patriarchal domination according to Widen (2003) was shaped by cultural values and past experiences which then tersosialiasi in family and community life. As a result, even until today, patriarchal culture, is generally regarded as "culture" that can not be changed, and some communities in Indonesia, including the Dayak consider it as part of "nature" of women.VII. Cover
Biological differences between men and women into the emergence of basic understanding of the different roles and areas of work between men and women. The man in the working area of public and women in the domestic sphere. In this position, biological reality is culturally interpreted, which in turn gave birth to the normative rules that are constructed and disseminated in social relations, which are appropriate and inappropriate is done by men or women. The implication of women getting stuck in the routine of household work and socially subordinate. Consequently, men become dominant and control the lives of women. Male dominance in the public domain subsequent delivery of cultural products are institutionalized through social institutions, so start happening hegemonisasi patriarchy in social life, which then raises the awareness of women to accept their gender inequality as "natural." Could women out of the hegemony of patriarchy as described above?. Even if possible, still require a long struggle, namely through the collective struggle of women and the struggle it certainly must have the courage to sacrifice some normative and theological rule is ingrained in the female self. Two major capital must be owned by women to get to that direction, namely that rational consciousness is built through education and their active participation in the political world. Advanced formal education (S1, S2 and S3) and infromal will open their insight and knowledge and that they can think critically, rational, creative, confident and more independent. Then women's participation in the political world will also open horizons and increase their knowledge of political life. Activities like this will train them to be more independent, more creative, critical thinking, networking / network with various women's organizations, governments and other political organizations. Political activity also trains women to dare to appear in public and together with other women fighting for gender justice in all aspects of life in society. Thus the solution will still be crippled, if good men as husbands, fathers, and leaders are not given insight into gender. It means the struggle to achieve justice and gender equality are the duties and obligations of men and women so that they had the same insight about the universal concept of gender. Behind it all there are three serious challenges ahead to break down the walls of patriarchy, namely Politics, Culture and Religion.
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